[EBOOK] Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, Lincoln Taiz - Eduardo Zeiger - Ian Max Moller - Angus Murphy, Published by SINAUER ASSOCIATES

Over the course of publishing six editions of Plant Physiology (now Plant Physiology and Development), it has become abundantly clear to us that, as a consequence of the spectacular advances in plant developmental genetics, the field of plant physiology has broadened in scope and increased in depth to the point where it is no longer possible for a single textbook to serve the needs of all courses on plant physiology.

Based on extensive feedback from instructors affiliated with a wide range of universities and colleges, we designed Fundamentals of Plant Physiology for instructors seeking a shorter text that emphasizes concepts as opposed to detailed, comprehensive coverage. To accommodate instructors wishing to focus their lectures on canonical plant physiology topics, the treatment of plant development, including hormonal signaling and photoreceptors, has been greatly condensed and reorganized. In keeping with a conceptual approach, genetic pathways have been streamlined by prioritizing functional mechanisms and by substituting descriptive terms for three-letter gene names whenever possible.

Throughout the text, explanations have been revised for easier comprehension, and figures have been simplified and annotated for greater clarity. To further improve readability, we have switched to a single-column format that includes a running glossary in the margins. In working on Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, our primary goal has been to provide a more concise, accessible, and focused treatment of the field of plant physiology, while at the same time maintaining the high standard of scientific accuracy and pedagogical richness for which Plant Physiology and Development is known.

We wish to thank Massimo Maffei for his suggested revisions to the physiological chapters. This book could not have been produced without the extensive help and support of the outstanding team of professionals at Sinauer Associates, now an imprint of Oxford University Press. We are especially grateful to our project editor, Laura Green, whose considerable expertise in plant physiology and biochemistry, and thorough dissection and critique of each chapter, which sometimes entailed major reorganizing, helped us to optimize the logical flow of topics and avoid as many factual errors as is humanly possible. Our second line of defense against errors and stylistic problems was our tireless copyeditor, Liz Pierson, who did wonders to shape the newly designed chapters into a seamless, integrated, and coherent whole. As always, the talented artist Elizabeth Morales implemented all the changes we requested to existing figures and created several new, attractive figures as well.

We owe the new single-column format of the book, including the running glossary, to the creative talents of Chris Small and his production team. Ann Chiara designed the inside of the book and crafted the layout. Another new design feature was use of chapter openers featuring plants pertinent to each chapter's content. Mark Siddall, our photo researcher, is responsible for finding the many fine and appropriate photos for use as chapter openers, and Beth Roberge Friedrichs deserves credit for designing the distinctive new cover for Fundamentals of Plant Physology. We are also grateful to Johanna Walkowicz for laying the foundation for the book's conception by devising and compiling surveys obtained from a wide selection of instructors. Thanks to her detailed analysis of the data, we were able to identify those topics of plant physiology that were most often covered in courses.

Finally, we extend our deepest gratitude to our publisher, Andy Sinauer, whose creative and innovative contributions to Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, as well as to previous editions of Plant Physiology and Development, are too numerous to list. Andy is retiring this year, and we are extremely sorry to see him go. He leaves behind a magnificent legacy, Sinauer Associates, that is second to none among publishers of scientific textbooks. Although we will sorely miss Andy's wisdom and invaluable insights, we look forward to a productive ongoing relationship with our new publisher, Oxford University Press.

Lincoln Taiz Eduardo Zeiger

Ian Max Moller Angus Murphy

[EBOOK] Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, Lincoln Taiz - Eduardo Zeiger - Ian Max Moller - Angus Murphy, Published by SINAUER ASSOCIATES

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[EBOOK] THE NEW SEED-STARTERS Handbook, BY NANCY BLIBEL, Illustrations by Frank Fretz, Photographs by Alison Miksch & Rodale Press Photography Staff

Since 1957, when we tried (arc failed!) to grow radishes in a window box outside our third-floor apartment in Philadelphia, my husband, Mike, and 1 have been learning about growing vegetables. We got off to slow' start. I had only vague memories of the Victory Garden my parents grew for a few years in our New England backyard, and an insistent yearning to begin a garden of my own. Mike had grown up on home-raised vegetables—a surprisingly limited variety of them, though, mostly grown from seed his mother had carefully saved from one harvest to the next: cabbage, potatoes, beans, carrots, beets dill, cucumbers, and sunflowers. Later, during a stay in Germany, he had taken a course in gardening at a free university of sorts. Mike wanted a garden, too.

When we moved into our first house. wre bought digging forks and shovels almost before the ink was dry on the deed. We started that first years with tomatoes and beans and many flowers. It took us several years to progress to planting a garden that we could cat from all summer, but by 1970 our vegetable garden was carrying US year round. Today wc hardly ever buy vegetable. Our year-round supplv of vegetables is due in large part to starting seeds early indoors and making continuous outdoor plantings of varieties of food chosen for quality and ease of storage.

Along the way, we've learned a lot about how' and when to start different vegetables. Trial and error has helped. Older relatives and neighbors have been generous with advice and lore, and we never start a new gardening year without thinking fondly of our different mentors and how much they have given US over the years. Reading about gardens and gardening, seeds, plants, soil, and insects has given US a framework that often supports relationships between what we’ve observed and what we’ve been told. Mostly, though, we’ve muddled along, taking longer than it now seems we should have to see and use the full potential of a piece of ground and a packet of seeds.

That’s whv I decided to write the first edition of The Seed-Starter’s Handbook—to help other gardeners make that jump from dabbling on self-sufficiency sooner and more easily than we did. At the same time, I hoped that experienced gardeners would find in it some insight into possibilities never considered, into alternatives and experiments in areas of gardening where the final word had yet to be written.

You know how it is when you put the phone down. You then remember all the otherthings you had intended to say. So it has been with this book. From the time the first edition was published, I’ve wished that I had included more about growing other garden flowers and wild plants from seed. In the ten years since I sent off that first manuscript, I’ve visited many gardens, asked a lot of questions, talked to numerous researchers, tried growing many new kinds of seeds, and read thousands of pages of gardening research, lore, and advice. Some of my learning grew out of my failures— with stubbornly dormant linden tree seeds, light-seeking scarlet sage seeds, and wildflower seeds that wouldn't germinate without prechilling.

The result is The New Seed-Starters Handbook, which contains new sections that detail the principles and techniques for starting garden flowers, wildflowcrs, herbs, trees, and shrubs from seed. This material has been combined with the chapter from the first edition on growing vegetables and garden fruits from seed to create to handy encyclopedia section. No book of this size can include every possible plant in each of these categories, but I’ve tried to give you a selection of the best. Although this is a handbook, not a textbook, I’ve included Latin names for the plants under discussion, just so we're all sure we're talking about the same plant, and for your convenience in ordering seeds. Common names are charming but often varv locally. Latin names are accurate worldwide.

Apart from the encyclopedia section and several additional chapters, the other new material in the book has been inserted into the existing text via new words, paragraphs, page, and sections. These additions and revisions represent an eight-month distilling process during which I evaluated and interpreted a whole flic of new material accumulated since the day The Seed-Starter’s Handbook was established. Not a chapter remains untouched. To be honest, gardening friends, rechecking all the facts, summarizing old material, adding newly discovered findings, and writing new chapters has been more difficult than writing the original manuscript. I’m hugely relieved that it is done, but also delighted to have had the chance to improve my original work.

Consider this book a manual of procedures, giving you the step-by -step how and when of various planting techniques. Look, too, in every chapter, for the principles on which these techniques are based, and count on finding at least a few open-ended questions that might challenge old suppositions or suggest new growing frontiers.

There's no one right way to do most of these things, you know. A good many workable options are open to you in planting seeds. I've tried to suggest the range of possibilities. The choice is up to you.

Let this book be smudged. Let it be marked. It’s meant to be used. I hope it will make a difference in your garden, and ultimately, on your table.

Once again, I wish you joy in planting seeds. The seed-starter works, always, at the edge of a mystery. Though we may take it for granted, we are part of that mystery, along with the fragility, the resilience, the dependability of the green world. Happy planting!

[EBOOK] THE NEW SEED-STARTERS Handbook, BY NANCY BLIBEL, Illustrations by Frank Fretz, Photographs by Alison Miksch & Rodale Press Photography Staff

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[EBOOK] To GM, or not to GM, that is the question! (Microbiologist)

The current losses of food crops to disease are unacceptable and so applied microbiology has an opportunity to make a substantial difference to our future health and wellbeing. This is especially true for late blight - a disease of potatoes and tomatoes that is caused by Phytophthorđ infestons (an oomycetc).

Potatoes are a key staple in many countries. Amongst starchy foods they are relatively nutrient rich and highly productive compared with cereals (though less water efficient). However, yield increases have flattened and losses to disease are significant; the cost to farmers of late blight is estimated at £60M a year in the UK alone.

Phytophthora infestans evolves remarkably rapidly, making the disease a particularly intractable problem; emerging strains have been able to overcome the resistance to infection seen previously in some potato varieties.

Plants that are susceptible to infection can be treated with fungicides, but those that arc effective carry high environmental risks. The popular Bordeaux Mixture -a copper-based fungicide used to prevent late blight - is in the process of being phased out by the EU, along with other copper formulations.

[EBOOK] To GM, or not to GM, that is the question! (Microbiologist)

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[EBOOK] A Textbook Of Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses, H.C. DUBE, VANI EDUCATIONAL BOOKS

Major scientific breakthroughs in modem biology and in particular the branch which at present goes by the name of molecular biology, have centred around fungi, bacteria and viruses. What has been learnt about the how and why of life, in the last hundred years with the-help of the above three is by any yardstick a biological revolution. Man moved mountains but remained ignorant as to what ailed him or his cattle and crops. Hundreds of thousands of people frequently died in one stroke of epidemic like that of smallpox. The loss of cattle and crops was equally devastating. As late as 1840’s a potato famine in Ireland caused death of over one million people and an equally large number fltd to other places. But sweet are the uses of adversity as man has always been impressed by calamity. The arm-chair scientists could no more defer decision. Thehgernx^heory’ of disease propounded by Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch was a great event in human history. Bacteria were proved to be the cause of several human and animal diseases. Anton de Bary, proved that Phytophthora, a fungus, was responsible for the Irish potato famine. The journey since then has been thrilling. The mysterious tobacco mosaic virus came as a parting gift of the 19th century. Many discoveries, having the effect of demolishing bombshells provided many intellectual shocks. TMV, though no longer as mysterious as it was in 1920’s quite often makes scientists feel like a child playing on the sea shore. The tempo of research is such that even really significant discoveries are accepted as common place.

It is always a pleasure to read and write about such important organisms. My brief for writing this book is one self-satisfaction. I have enjoyed myself writing this book. Hope students will also feel the same while reading it. I remember with gratitude my ‘microbial mentors’ Professors R.N. Tandon, T.s. Sạdasivan, K.s. Bhargava, K.s. Bilgrami, H.D. Kumar and Dr p.c. Misra. Thanks are due to my two research colleagues Dr H.N. Gour and Dr Miss Sunila Mathur for many stimulating and enjoyable discussions.

[EBOOK] A Textbook Of Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses, H.C. DUBE, VANI EDUCATIONAL BOOKS

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[EBOOK] HYDROPONICS (Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture), COPY RIGHT BY ALBERT

Soil is usually the most available growing medium and plants normally grow in it. It provides anchorage, nutrients, air, water, etc. for successful plant growth. Modification of a soil an alternate growing medium tends to be expensive. However, soils do pose serious limitations for plant growth, at times. Presence of disease causing organisms and nematodes, unsuitable soil reaction, unfavourable soil compaction, poor drainage, degradation due to erosion, etc. are some of them.
Further, continuous cultivation of crops has resulted in poor soil fertility, which in turn has reduced the opportunities for natural soil fertility build up by microbes. This situation has lead to poor yield and quality.

In addition, conventional crop growing in soil (Open Field Agriculture) is difficult as it involves large space, lot of labour and large volume of water. And in some places like metropolitan areas, soil is not available for crop growing. Another serious problem experienced since of late is the dif ficulty to hire labour for conventional open field agriculture.

[EBOOK] HYDROPONICS (Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture), COPY RIGHT BY ALBERT

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[EBOOK] Opportunities and challenges for research on food and nutrition security and agriculture in Europe, By EASAC

National academies of science have a long tradition of engaging widely to strengthen the evidence base to underpin the delivery of enhanced food and nutrition security at regional and national levels. EASAC, the European Academies' Science Advisory Council, has produced this report for European audiences as a contribution to a project worldwide initiated by IAP, the InterAcademy Partnership, the global network of science academies. The IAP work brings together regional perspectives in parallel from Africa. Asia, the Americas and Europe on the opportunities for the science-policy interface, identifying how research can contribute to resolving challenges for agriculture, food systems and nutrition.

Our EASAC report combines analysis of the current status in Europe with exploration of ways forward. Overconsumption of calorie-dense foods leading to overweight and obesity creates a major public health problem in Europe; but Europeans are not immune from other concerns about food and nutrition security and must also recognise the impact of their activities on the rest of the world. We define the goal of food and nutrition security as providing access for all to a healthy and affordable diet that is environmentally sustainable. We recognise the necessity to take account of diversity: in food systems and dietary intakes within and between countries, and in the variability of nuưient requirements in vulnerable groups within populations and across the individual's life cycle.

In our report we take an integrative food systems approach to cover inter-related issues for resource efficiency, environmental stability, resilience and the public health agenda, also addressing issues for local-global interconnectedness of systems. Setting priorities for increasing agricultural production through sustainable intensification must take account of pressures on other critical natural resources, particularly water, soil and energy, and the continuing need to avoid further loss in ecosystem biodiversity. Dealing with food and nutrition security must include both supply-side and demand-side issues: reducing food waste and changing to healthier consumption patterns will reduce pressure on land and other resources.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Convention on Climate Change objectives provide critically important general frameworks for meeting the challenges to food and nutrition security but mandate renewed engagement by science to clarify trade-offs among goals and address the complexities of evidence-based policies and programmes. For example, it is becoming dearer that climate change will have negative impacts on food systems in various ways, necessitating the introduction of climate-smart agriculture (such as
the adoption of plant breeding innovations to cope with drought) but also that agriculture itself contributes substantially to climate change Mitigating this contribution depends on climate-smart food systems (such as land-sparing and agronomic management practices) together with efforts to influence consumer behaviours associated with excessive agricultural greenhouse gas emissions (overconsumption of calories and high meat intake). Therefore, taking account of the accruing scientific evidence, changing dietary consumption could bring co-benefits to health and to climate change.

In our report we have focused on scientific opportunities: how the current scientific evidence base can shape understanding of challenges by the public, serve as a resource for innovation, and inform policy options, and what the research agenda should be to fill current knowledge gaps. It is urgent to continue to build critical mass in research and innovation and to mobilise that resource in advising policymakers and other stakeholders. We emphasise the vitally important role of basic research in characterising new frontiers in science and of long-term commitment to investing in research to enable, establish and evaluate innovation. This innovation must encompass social and institutional, as well as technological, innovation.

We frame our specific recommendations within die context of strategic dimensions that determine a wide range of actions in science and policy:

•    The interfaces between research on the nutrition-sensitivity of food and agriculture systems and on environmental sustainability must be addressed to connect scientific knowledge on natural resources to the food value chain. The sustainable bioeconomy and circular economy provide for new overarching frameworks, going beyond traditional concepts of economic sectors.

•    The focus cannot be only on populations in general but should also cover particular issues for vulnerable groups such as mothers and children, the elderly, patients and migrants. This requires systematic, longitudinal data collection to generate robust resources, together with cross-disciplinary research, encompassing economics and social sciences as well as the natural sciences, to understand vulnerable groups and the more general aspects of consumer behaviour.

•    Large data sets, based on comparable and verifiable methodology, are a vital tool to support innovation throughout the food system and to prepare for risk and uncertainty. There is much to be done to fill data gaps, to agree improved procedures for data collection, curation, analysis and sharing, while also addressing data ownership and privacy concerns.

•    To contribute with evidence to options for reform of the present Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) towards devising a European Union (EU) food and nutrition policy that rewards innovation, reduces risks, focusses on public goods, takes account of the varying national interests and cultures, and contributes to benefitting the rest of the world.

•    EU development assistance should be viewed broadly, to include international collaborative research; research in the EU on prionties for global food systems, their resilience and perturbations; sharing of science and technology especially related to food and nutrition security; and resolution

of international governance issues of food and agriculture.

•    Ensuring that regulatory and management frameworks are evidence-based, proportionate and sufficiently flexible to prepare for and enable advances in science.

Within this overall framework for European strategy

development, our report identifies many opportunities

to generate, connect and use research. Among specific

scientific opportunities are the following.

Nutrition, food choices and food safety

•    Understanding the drivers of dietary choices, consumer demand and how to inform and change behaviour, including acceptance of innovative foods and innovative diets.

•    Tackling the perverse price incentives to consume high-calorie diets and introducing new incentives for healthy nutrition.

•    Clarifying what is a sustainable, healthy diet and how to measure sustainability related to consumption.

•    Exploring individual responsiveness to nutrition and the links to health.

•    Promoting research interfaces between nutrition, food science and technology, the public sector and industry.

•    Evaluating how to make food systems more nutrition-sensitive.

•    Characterising sources of food contamination and the opportunities for reducing food safety concerns
that may arise from implementation of other policy objectives (for example, the circular economy goal of recycling of waste materials).

•    Compiling analytical tests to authenticate food origin and quality.

•    Assessing any disconnects between the implications of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) objectives for livestock and meat consumption, and standard recommendations for consuming healthy diets.

Plants and animals in agriculture

•    For livestock, determining how to capitalise on genomics research for food production and for animal health and welfare. This includes the rapidly advancing science of genome editing and the increasing significance of charaơerising genetic material conserved in gene banks.

•    For the oceans, improving the knowledge base for sustainable harvest and culturing of lower trophic level marine resources and exploring the potential for biomass provision to diminish pressures on agricultural land, freshwater and fertilisers.

•    For crops, progressing understanding of the genetics and metabolomics of plant product quality. This also includes capitalising on the new opportunities coming within range for the targeted modification of crops using genome editing.

•    For plants as for animal science, it is important to protect wild gene pools and to continue sequencing of genetic resources to unveil the potential of genetic resources.

Environmental sustainability

•    Evaluating climate resilience throughout food systems and transforming food systems to mitigate their global warming impact.

•    Capitalising on opportunities to co-design research across disciplines to understand better the nexus food-water-other ecosystem services and to inform the better coordination of relevant policy instruments, including the CAP, Water Framework Directive and the Habitats Directive. Efforts to increase the efficiency of food systems should not focus on increasing agricultural productivity by ignoring environmental costs.

•    Developing an evidence base to underpin land and water use in providing the range of private and public goods required in a sustainable way, appropriate to place.

Regarding biofuel choices, the immediate research objectives for the next generation of biofuels include examining the potential of cellulosic raw materials.

•    Research should continue to explore the value of synthetic biology and other approaches to engineer systems with improved photosynthesis. There is also continuing need for research to clarify impacts of biomass production on land use and food prices.

•    For soil, expanding research to understand and quantify the potential value of soil in carbon sequesưation and, hence, climate change mitigation. There is a broad research agenda to characterise other functions of soil and the soil microbiome and contribute to the bioeconomy, for example as a source of novel antibiotics. Research is also important to support cost-effective soil monitoring and management, particularly to underpin the reduced use of fertilisers and improve biodiversity.

Waste

•    Committing to the collection of more robust data on the extent of waste in food systems and the effectiveness of interventions to reduce waste at local and regional levels.

•    Ensuring the application of food science and technology and agronomy in novel approaches to processing food and reducing waste, and

in informing the intersection between circular economy and bioeconomy policy objectives.

Trade and markets

•    Increasing commitment to data colleơion on trade flows and prices with modelling and analysis of databases.
•    Examining linkages between extreme events and price volatility, evaluating the effects of regulatory policy instruments in agricultural commodity markets and the price transmission between global commodity markets and local food systems.

•    Ascertaining the science agenda for understanding the characteristics of fair trade systems, for example the non-tariff conditions associated with variation in regulatory policy, labelling or other food safety requirements.

Innovation trends

In each of the above-mentioned specific areas of science opportunities, the linkages between basic science and problem-solving applied science seem likely to become more closely related in the future. This is so in the fields of biosciences, digitisation, mathematics and farm precision technologies, health and behaviour, as well as in complex environmental and food system modelling. This has consequences for the redesign of the science landscape and for science teaching and the training of next-generation scientists to address food, nutrition and agriculture issues.

We emphasise the key role of agricultural sciences for European competitiveness and urge a rebalancing of commitments: to shift budget items from agricultural subsidies towards innovation in the pending reform of the CAP.

It is now important to be more ambitious in identifying and using the scientific opportunities. Our messages are aimed at European and national policymakers, member academies, the scientific community and other stakeholders. We will also use this analysis of European evidence as the regional contribution to the IAP integrated phase of the project, to develop interregional and global recommendations.

[EBOOK] Opportunities and challenges for research on food and nutrition security and agriculture in Europe, By EASAC

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[EBOOK] Biochar Systems for Smallholders in Developing Countries (Leveraging Current Knowledge and Exploring Future Potential for Climate-Smart Agriculture), Sebastian M. Scholz et al., Published by THE WORLD BANK

Three of the biggest challenges of the twenty-first century are the need to nearly double food production by 2050, to adapt and build resilience to a more and more challenging climatic environment, and to simultaneously achieve a substantial reduction in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. The surge of interest in climate-smart agriculture, which focuses on solutions to the three challenges, has sparked curiosity in using biochar as a tool to fight climate change while also improving soil fertility. Biochar systems are particularly relevant in developing country' contexts and could be leveraged to address global challenges associated with food production and climate change. However the potential effects of biochar application to soils are diverse and its climate impact is contingent on the design of the system into which it is integrated. 'Hius biochar systems are inherently complex and further research is needed to understand their associated opportunities and risks in developing countries.

There are a number of reasons why biochar systems might be particularly relevant in developing-country contexts. The potential for biochar to improve soil fertility' could result in increased crop yields from previously degraded soils for smallholder farmers. Improved cookstoves that produce biochar as well as heat for cooking could reduce indoor aữ pollution and time spent on fuel gathering. Both of these results could be beneficial to forests. Enhanced food production capacity could potentially decrease the need to clear more forested land for agriculture, and more efficient cookstoves could decrease wood gathering from forests already in decline. It is vital that further research is undertaken to fill the gaps in our knowledge of biochar systems.

This report offers a review of what is known about opportunities and risks of biochar systems including soil and agricultural impacts, climate change impacts, social impacts, and competing uses of biomass. The report benefited from its wide-ranging methodology including a desk review of existing literature; a two-step survey of biochar systems that elicited 154 responses to the initial survey, and 48 responses on the follow-up survey to learn more about the social and cultural barriers to biochar adoption; an expert workshop in Washington, DC to assist in analysis of the collected data; development of a typology of biochar systems; and a life-cycle assessment of selected systems in Kenya, Vietnam, and Senegal.

[EBOOK] Biochar Systems for Smallholders in Developing Countries (Leveraging Current Knowledge and Exploring Future Potential for Climate-Smart Agriculture), Sebastian M. Scholz et al., Published by THE WORLD BANK

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[EBOOK] FRIENDS OF THE RICE FARMER: Helpful Insects, Spiders, and Pathogens, B.M. Shepard, A.T. Barrion and J.A. Litsinger, IRRI

This booklet illustrates representative examples of some of the more common species of predators, parasites, and diseases of insect pests of rice. It can be used with the IRRI booklet Field problems of tropical rice, which provides information only on pest species.

Before intelligent decisions about pesticide applications can be made, it is necessary to be able to identify which insect species are pests and which are beneficial. The occurrence of beneficial organisms varies depending upon location, time of year, and crop cultural practices. Thus we made no attempt to rank the groups by their relative importance.

Scientific language has been minimized so that the descriptions can be more easily understood. The pictures will provide an easy way of identifying beneficial species and thereby help prevent unnecessary chemical treatments.

Like Field Problems, this booklet was designed to facilitate its easy and inexpensive translation and copublication in languages other than English. IRRl does not ask for payment of royalties or payments for translation of IRRl materials published in developing nations. For details, contact the Communication and Publications Department, International Rice Research Institute, PO Box 933, Manila Philippines.

[EBOOK] FRIENDS OF THE RICE FARMER: Helpful Insects, Spiders, and Pathogens, B.M. Shepard, A.T. Barrion and J.A. Litsinger, IRRI

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[EBOOK] SOIL BIOLOGY - Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology, Ajit Varma and Ralf Oelmuller, Published by Springer

There is general belief and admission that important, innovative and novel ideas emerge over a cup of ‘Indian Darjeeling tea’ or a glass of ‘German beer’. The editors of this book were sipping a cup of tea on the lush green garden lawns of North Maharastra University, Jalgaon, India. The weather was congenial and most suitable for materializations of original ideas. The genesis of this book underlines the concept developed in 2006.

The field of microbiology began concurrently with the discovery of microorganisms by two Fellows of The Royal Society, Robert Hooke and Antony van Leeuwenhoek, during the period 1665-1683. Later, during the golden era of microbiology, noted scientists Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch laid a sound foundation for the modern microbiology. The study of microorganisms has became a valuable science in the last 100 years as it has provided both the means to control a number of infectious diseases and the experimental systems for the development of molecular biology. New developments in biotechnology and environmental microbiology signify that microbiology will continue to be an exciting field of study in the future. Various modern tools and techniques are required for a proper understanding of the roles of microbes in the causation of infectious diseases and the recycling of chemical elements in the biosphere. Assorted laboratory experiments not only motivate researchers and students by stimulating interest and enjoyment but also enhance the acquisition of scientific knowledge along with the development of ‘scientific attitudes’, such as open-mindedness and objectivity.

There are numerous textbooks and review papers dealing with state-of-the-art of various aspects of molecular biology of microorganisms. However, the readers get lost in initiating the experiments due to lack of suitable and easy protocols. They have to search for diverse methods and techniques in a variety of literature and journals and still do not obtain the complete information dealing with the protocols in a concise manner. This book is an attempt to overcome the inherent cumbersome search process. Every effort was made to present the protocols in a very simple manner for easy understanding of undergraduate, graduates, postgraduates, post doctorates, active scientists and researchers.

Soil, the main contributor to plant nourishment, is the top layer of the Earth’s surface and consists of rock and mineral particles mixed with organic matter. Soil microbiology is the study of the microorganisms in soil, their functions, and the consequences of their activities on the nature of the soil and the effect on the growth and health of plant life. Just a few grams of soil, less than a teaspoonful, may contain hundreds of millions to billions of microbes. Not only is the total number of microorganisms in fertile soil quite high, but also, together, they weigh a lot. Soil microbial biomass can range from several hundred to thousands of pounds per acre.

The most plentiful microbes in soil are one-celled bacteria and fungi, which produce long, slender strings of cells called filaments or hyphae. The actinomy-cetes come between these two organisms. It is the actinomycetes that give soil its characteristic earthy smell. In this volume, the editors have accumulated various advanced molecular approaches for studying the different soil microorganisms for the benefit of humankind. Different techniques for measuring microbial biomass and activity in soil have been developed. Primers in Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) techniques for species identification and other forgotten tools like quantitative histochemistry are discussed in details in this book with the hope that this would promote the understanding of microbes by students and advanced researchers alike.

The editors have brought together the diverse topics related to various aspects of molecular approaches to the detection of soil microbes, namely assessing and detecting soil micro-fungal diversity and providing insight into their feasibility. Various problems associated with the dilution plating technique, importance of the rDNA gene in fungal systematics, the reliability of other molecular approaches (especially Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis) and their drawbacks are discussed. Various modern tools and techniques like automated fluorescent DNA sequencing strategy, mRNA quantitation using real time PGR, RNAi technology, transcriptome analysis and immuno-techniques are handled by subject experts of these specific fields for clear and easy understanding for all. Different widely used methods like fatty acid methylester (FAME), phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) are elucidated with their advantages and limitations outlined. DGGE and RISA protocols for microbial community analysis in soil are also one of the highlights of this book.

The soil zone located in and around the active roots is called the rhizosphere. This zone has high microbial activity. Materials released from roots, called exudates, create a food-rich environment for the growth of microorganisms. Rhi-zosphere microorganisms in turn help plants by fixing nitrogen from the soil air, dissolving soil minerals and decomposing organic matter, all of which allow roots to obtain essential nutrients. Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs) generate a variety of chemicals that stimulate plant growth. The bacteria grow and persist in the rhizosphere of non-woody roots. Various screening methods for PGPRs are described in this book.

A special kind of fungus called mycorrhizae also associates with higher plants. By colonizing large areas of roots and reaching out into the soil, mycorrhizae assist in transport of soil nutrients and water into the plant. The latest methods for conducting experiments and research in mycorrhiza have been described. Cultivation of a group of mycorrhiza-like fungi belonging to family Sebacinales is enumerated. One of the members of Sebacinales which provides stress tolerance activity against heavy metals and induced pathogen resistance in cereals is discussed.

Authors have brought forth diverse approaches and methods to study the mechanisms behind the observed pathogen resistance induced by Piriformos-pora indica.

Model organism A. thallium was used as the plant partner to understand the molecular basis for beneficial plant/microbe interactions and this is also discussed in this edition. Several other techniques like ion cyclotron resonance Fourier transform mass spectrometry (ICR-FT/MS) for non-targeted metabo-lomics of molecular interactions in the rhizosphere are presented. Immuno-technology for the localization of acid phosphatase using native gel bands in p. itidica and other soil microorganism are elaborated in this volume of the Soil Biology series.

We are grateful to the many people who helped to bring this volume to light. We wish to thank Dr. Dieter Czeschlik and Dr. Jutta Lindenborn, Springer Heidelberg, for generous assistance and patience in finalizing the volume. Finally, specific thanks go to our families, immediate, and extended, not forgetting those who have passed away, for their support or their incentives in putting everything together. Ajit Varma in particular is very thankful to Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan, Founder President of the Ritnand Balved Fducation Foundation (an umbrella organization of Amity Institutions), New Delhi, for the kind support and constant encouragement received. Special thanks are due to my esteemed friend and well-wisher Professor Dr. Sunil Saran, Director General, Amity Institute of Biotechnology and Adviser to Founder President, Amity Universe, all faculty colleagues Drs. Amit c. Kharkwal, Harsha Kharkwal, Shwet Kamal, Neeraj Verma, Atimanav Gaur and Debkumari Sharma and my Ph.D. students Ms. Aparajita Das, Mr. Ram Prasad, Ms. Manisha Sharma, Ms. Sreelekha Chat-terjee, Ms. Swati Tripathi, Mr. Vipin Mohan Dan and Ms. Geetanjali Chauhan. The technical support received from Mr. Anil Chandra Bahukhandi is highly appreciated.

[EBOOK] SOIL BIOLOGY - Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology, Ajit Varma and Ralf Oelmuller, Published by Springer

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[EBOOK] ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO INTEGRATED PESTMANAGEMENT IN RICE IN TROPICAL ASIA, W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody, L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew, and A.T. Barrion, IRRI

In the past, farmers in tropical Asia grew traditional rice cultivars and either relied primarily on cultural, mechanical, and physical methods of pest control or practiced no pest control. Pesticide application was limited because the yield potential of traditional varieties was too low to justify additional investments. Although pests destroyed part of each crop, severe outbreaks or epidemics were rare.

The widespread introduction of high-yielding rice cultivars in Asia in the last two decades and the associated changes in production practices have improved conditions for insects, diseases, weeds, and rodents. The higher yield potential of the new rices also made increased pesticide application economically attractive to farmers.

The replacement of traditional control methods by pesticides could increase hazards to nontarget organisms, however, and lead to the development of pesticide resistance and environmental contamination. To minimize such problems, Asian farmers must again diversify their pest control practices — a strategy that scientists now term integrated pest management (IPM).

Recently, scientists working in national rice production programs and at international agricultural research centers have written extensively about IPM for tropical rice. Many of the publications are research-oriented, fragmented, and too technical for nonscientists. Furthermore, much of the highly specialized information often focuses on a single species or a small group of pests.

This publication provides practical and comprehensive information to IPM workers in rice fields throughout tropical Asia. It briefly discusses rice plant structure and growth stages and stresses their relation to pest management. There are separate sections on cultural control of rice pests, resistant rice varieties, natural enemies of rice insect pests, and pesticides. The biology and management of the major groups of rice pests — insects, diseases, weeds, and rodents — are discussed in separate sections. Finally, integrated control measures for the entire rice pest complex and the implementation of IPM strategies at the farmer level are described.

This volume represents the combined efforts of many persons. The style and first draft of the text were developed by W. H. Reissig of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, USA, during a 1979-80 sabbatic leave at IRRI. Reissig's firsthand experience in developing IPM strategies for farmers gave him the necessary background to organize the information in a useful form. E. A. Heinrichs, IRRl entomologist, reviewed the technical material and worked with IRRl editors and artists after Reissig's departure.

J. A. Litsinger, IRRl cropping systems entomologist, provided technical information on the biology and management of many insect pests and composed the section on cultural control. K. Moody, IRRl agronomist, supplied technical information and reviewed the section on biology and control of weeds. L. A. Fiedler, a research biologist from the Denver Wildlife Research Center, stationed at the National Crop Protection Center, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, acted as technical consultant in the preparation of the section on Biology and Management of Riceland Rats in Southeast Asia. T. W. Mew, IRRI plant pathologist, provided technical information and reviewed the section on disease management. A. T. Barrion, IRRl entomology department senior research assistant, served as technical consultant and worked with artists in the preparation of the section on Natural Enemies of Rice Insect Pests.

This volume can be easily translated into the various languages of Southeast Asia and serve as a key source of information for IPM training programs. We hope that it will stimulate the implementation of IPM technology by rice farmers in tropical Asia as well as the development of similar publications for other rice-growing regions.

[EBOOK] ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO INTEGRATED PESTMANAGEMENT IN RICE IN TROPICAL ASIA, W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody, L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew, and A.T. Barrion, IRRI

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[EBOOK] Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions In Agriculture - A Manual to Address Data Requirements for Developing Countries

Countries report dieir greeidiouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals from all sectors via national GHG Inventories, submitted to tile United Nations Framework Convention OI1 Climate Giauge (UNFCCQ in accordance widi international climate policy agreements and tcclmical guidelines developed by die Inteigovemmental Rnd OI1 Qimate Qiange (IPCC).

'Die agiicultiur sector represents a unique challenge for national inventory compilers, especially in developing countries, due to significant difficulties in compiling and regularly updating national statistics for agriculture, forestry' and land use —die first necessary step in preparing aational GỈIG estimates.

The limited capacity to identify and collect reliable activity data and to quantify emissions by sources and removals by sinks, including in countries where agriculture and land use activities are a key component of the national economy and a driver of employment, cotdd furthermore lead to limited access to international climate finance of importance to rural development, stich as for instance REDD+ activities and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs).

MO supports Its Member Countries with data, guidelines and technical expertise towards an enhanced global knowledge base on GHG emissions and mitigation potentials. The MonừotÌHỊ atid Assessment ofGHG Emissions and MừiỊation Potentials in Av iculture - SÍAGHG Project of die Climate. Ettctgy and Land Tenure Division's Mitigation Programme (MICCA), in close collaboration widi the MO Statistics Division and die FAO Forestry Division UN REDD Programme, has developed and made available relevant activity data. GE1G emission estimates databases and analysis tools through the MOSTATdatabase. These products are used in regional and country-level capacity' development activities that support practitioners in assessing and reporting GHG emissions from agriculture and land use categories. With a view to strengthening dieứ national processes, with a focus on preparation and submission of GHG Inventories, Biennial Update Reports (BURs) and NAMAs.

Tills Manual provides Member Countries with a tool and mediodology to help identify, build and access die ummnum set of activity data needed for GHG estimation. Required data IS largely drawn from country’s official national agricultural and forestry statistics, as disseminated inMO’s corporate database MOSTAT. and integrated by geo spatial data obtained from recognized international sources. Users are provided widi step-by-step guidance oil how to use dns minimum set to build a default, yet complete national GHG emission dataset for agriculture and land use. winch follows die defaidt. Her 1 approach of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Cliauge (IPCC) Guidelines on National GHG Inventories.

This Manual dierefore contributes to FAO and die Global Strategy support to national processes towards improved agricultural and rural statistics. It can be used as a guide by staff of national statistical offices, euviroiunental ministries and other relevant national agencies, to understand die international context of international climate policy (Ch. 2) and international guidelines (Ch. 3), identify needs for improved agricultural and rural data as well as emission estimates towards improving GHG Inventories (Gh. 4), wlnle supplying practical infonuadoii and examples based on accessing and using die MOSTATEmissions database for agriculture and land use (Ch. 5).

Improving statistical processes for GHG estimation has wider implications beyond climate change mitigation. Improved statistics on agrictdniral and land use activities enable Member Countries better identify climate responses that arc consistent with their rural development and food security objectives, including preserving natural resources, increasing resilience of production systems and creating new employment opportunities.

[EBOOK] Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions In Agriculture - A Manual to Address Data Requirements for Developing Countries

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[EBOOK] Info ROOT VEGETABLES (Field and postharvest machinery and materials)

Measured in planted area, onions are the second crop in Germany, after asparagus and close over carrots (11293 ha in 2017). Yearly production is about 500.0001.

Planting starts in March/April and the produce is cropped between August and October. Being a product of easy storage - over seven months -, consumption can be regulated along the year.

In spite of that, domestic production does not cover consumption. Between 2012 and 2016, average yearly imports amounted to 238.0001.

Another fact conditions the onion market in Germany. As a matter of fact, there are two markets in the country. Sweet onions, which have a good caliber and a soft taste, do not grow in Central Europe and must be imported all year round. From Mediterranean countries - mostly Spain - or from the Southern hemisphere in the offseason. Domestic produce ("Haushaltware") with much intense taste can be stored. In spite of that, in a long storage organoleptic properties spoil. New Zealand becomes then an important supplier. Its produce is on the market between March and July. Spanish produce is all year round available, even when it also suffers when submitted to long storage periods.

In spite of those complexities, the good storage characteristics of the onions help to keep the German market somehow stable all year round.

[EBOOK] Info ROOT VEGETABLES (Field and postharvest machinery and materials)

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[EBOOK] Plant Pathogens and Principles of Plant Pathology-ICAR e-Course For B.Sc (Agriculture) and B.Tech (Agriculture)

Lecture 01 - Introduction

Definition and History of Plant Pathology

Plant Pathology

Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science, which deals with the plant diseases. It is concerned with health and productivity of growing plants. Phytopathology ( Greek Phyton = plant + pathos - disease, ailments + logos = discourse, knowledge) is the branch of agricultural, botanical or biological science which deals with the cause, etiology (aetiology), resulting in losses and management methods of plant diseases.

Plant pathology can also be defined as the study of the nature, cause and prevention of plant diseases. Plant pathology is related to most of the old and new sciences like biology, physics, chemistry, physiology, mathematics, genetics, soil science, biochemistry, biotechnology etc. Plant pathology has the following major objectives.

1. To study biotic (living), mesobiotic and abiotic (non-living and environmental) causes of diseases or disorders

2. To study the mechanisms of disease development by pathogens

3. To study the plant (host)-pathogen interaction in relation to environment

4. To develop methods of management of plant diseases

Plant diseases

Plant diseases are recognized by the symptoms (external or internal) produced by them or by sick appearance of the plant. The term plant disease signifies the condition of the plant due to disease or cause of the disease. Plant disease is mainly defined in terms of the damage caused to the plant or to its organ. The other definitions for the term disease are:

1. Disease is a malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation, which results in some suffering producing symptoms. This definition is accepted by both American Phytopathological Society and British Mycological Society.

2. Disease is an alteration in one or more of the ordered sequential series of physiological processes culminating in a loss of coordination of energy utilization in a plant as a result of the continuous irritation from the presence or absence of some factor or agent.

3. A plant is said to be ‘diseased’ when there is a harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological process (Federation of British Plant Pathologists, 1973).

4. The disease can also be defined as 'any disturbance brought about by a living entity or non-living agents or environmental factors which interfere with manufacture, translocation or utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the affected plant changes in appearance with or without much loss in yield than that of a normal healthy plant of the same variety. In general disease is an interaction among the host, parasite and the environment.

Man became painfully aware of plant diseases in the early times of antiquity. This is evidenced by the inclusion of blasting and mildew in the Old Testament. Our ancient religious literature gives informations on plant diseases much before their mention by the Greek philosopher, Theophrastus. Rigveda, Atharvanaveda (1500-500 B.C.), the Artha Shashtra of Kautilya (321-186 B.C.), Sushrute Samhita (200-500 A.D.), Vishnu Puran (500 A.D.),

Agnipuran (500-700 A.D.) and Vishnudharmottar (500-700 A.D.) are some of the ancient books from India where diseases and other enemies of plants are mentioned. In Rigveda, classification of plant diseases and germ theory of disease were discussed.

The learned men during Vedic period were aware that the diseases are caused by microbes. The book "Vraksha Ayurveda" written by Surapal in ancient India contained information on plant diseases. This is the Indian book, which gave first information on plant diseases. He divided plant diseases into two groups viz., internal and external. Plant diseases like rust, smut, downy mildew, powdery mildew and blight were mentioned in the Bible.

The Greek Philosopher, Theophrastus (370-286 B.C.) was the first to study and write about the diseases of trees, cereals and legumes. In his book 'Enquiry into plants' Theophrastus has recorded his observations, imaginations and experiences but they were not based on any experiments. He had mentioned that plants of different groups have different diseases, which are autonomous or spontaneous i.e., no external causes were associated with the plant diseases. The history in several aspects of plant pathology is given as below.

Mycology

1675 - Dutch worker Anton von Leeuwenhoek developed the first microscope.

1729 - Italian botanist P. A. Micheli proposed fungi comes from spores; father of Mycology. 1755 - French botanist Tillet published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat; discovered bunt is a disease of wheat.

1807 - French scientist I. B. Prevost showed bunt of wheat is a fungus and showed evidence that a disease is caused by a microorganism.

1821 - E. M. Fries published Systema Mycologicum for naming of fungi; he was named as Linnaeus of Mycology.

1821 - Robertson of England stated that sulphur is effective against peach mildew.

1845 - Irish Potato famine due to Phytophthora infestans caused starvation of million and immigration of 1.5 million people.

1858 - J. G. Kuhn published first textbook in Plant Pathology - The Diseases of Cultivated Crops, their Causes and their Control.

1861 -Anton de Bary (Germany) worked out the life cycle of potato late blight and first to prove experimentally Phytophthora infestans is the cause of potato late blight. He proved that fungi are causes but not the results of diseases. He is the Father of Modern Plant Pathology.

1865 - Anton de Bary reported heteroecious nature of wheat stem rust.

1869 - England loses coffee production to coffee rust, forced to grow tea.

1874 -Robert Hartig published a book entitled, “Important Diseases of Forest Trees”. 1875-1912 - Brefeld discovered the methods of artificial culture of microorganisms;

he also illustrated the complete life cycles of cereal smut fungi and diseases caused by them.

1877 - M. S. Woronin discovered and named the Club root of Cabbage pathogen as Plasmodiophora brassicae.

1878 - M. S. Woronin found out the life cycle of potato wart disease.

1878 -Downy mildew of grapevine was introduced into Europe from America. The disease almost ruined the wine industry.

1881 -H.M. Ward worked out the life cycle of coffee leaf rust. He is called as Father of Tropical Plant Pathology.

1882 -Robert Hartig published a textbook -Diseases of Trees. He is called as "Father of Forest Pathology".

1885 -Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet accidentally discovered the Bordeaux mixture for the control of downy mildew of grapevine.

1885 - A. B. Frank defined and named mycorrhizal associations in plant roots.

1887 -Burgundy mixture was introduced by Mason of France.

1894 -Swedish scientist Eriksson described the phenomenon of physiologic races in cereal rust fungus, Puccinia graminis.

1899 - W. A. Orton selected and bred water-melon, cowpea and cotton for resistance to Fusarium wilt diseases. He is considered as a pioneer worker in the development of diseaseresistant varieties.

1904 - A. F. Blakeslee, American Geneticist founded heterothallism in Rhizopus

1904 - R. H. Biffen was the first to show that resistance to pathogens in plants can be inherited as a Mendelian character; pioneer in genetics of plant disease resistance.

1912 - H. Burgeff reported that within a cell of a fungus, fusion between dissimilar nuclei can occur. He called this phenomenon as heterokaryosis.

1917 -E. C. Stakman demonstrated physiologic forms in stem rust of wheat.

1918 -E.J.Butler published book on Fungi and Disease in Plants; he made exhaustive study on Indian fungi and the diseases caused by them. He is called as the Father of Modern Plant Pathology in India; He joined as the first Director of Imperial Bureau of Mycology (Commonwealth Mycological Institute, CMI) now CAB International Mycological Institute in Kew, England in 1920. He began the journal Review of Applied Mycology; with S.G. Jones he wrote, 'Plant Pathology' in 1949.

1929 -Sir Alexander Fleming isolated the antibiotic, Penicillin from the fungus, Penicillium notatum.

1932 - H. N. Hansen and R. E. Smith were the first to demonstrate the origin of physiologic races through heterokaryosis.

1934 -W. H. Tisdale and I. Williams studied the organic fungicides by discovering alkyl dithiocarbamates.

1938 - H. N. Hansen found out dual phenomenon in Fungi Imperfecti.

1942 - H. H. Flor developed gene-for-gene hypothesis in flax rust.

1943 - Great Bengal Famine due to Helminthosporium oryzae caused death of 2 million people in India.

1943 -Dimond, Heuberger and Horsfall discovered the ethylene bis dithiocarbamates.

1945 -J. G. Horsfall explored the mechanism of fungicidal action.

1948 -B. B. Mundkur started Indian Phytopathological Society with its journal Indian

Phytopathology. He has written a book ‘Fungi and Plant Diseases’ in 1949, which is the second, book in plant pathology in India.

1951-57 -E. A. Gaumann was one of the first to investigate the physiology of the wilts caused by Fusarium spp. He put forth the involvement of toxin (toxin theory) in wilt diseases.

1952 -N.F. Jensen suggested blending of different resistant genotypes of similar agronomic characters in fields of oats to reduce the spread of rust and losses from rust.

1953 -N. E. Borlaug and associates developed multiline cultivars for wheat.

1953 - Pontecorvo and his associates demonstrated parasexualism in fungi.

1956 -J. G. Horsfall published a book entitled "Principles of Fungicidal action"

1957 - E. C. Stakman with J. G. Harrar wrote a book Principles of Plant Pathology.

1963 - J. E. Van der Plank found out vertical and horizontal types of resistance in crop plants.

1966 -van Schmeling and Marshall Kulka were the first to find out systemic fungicides (oxathiin compounds - carboxin and oxycarboxin).

1970 -S. D. Garrett investigated the management of root diseases and he is the pioneer worker in the field of biological control. 1972 - G. Rangaswami wrote a book on Diseases of Crop Plants in India.

Plant Bacteriology

1683 - Anton von Leeuwenhoek first observed bacteria.

1876 -Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch -They proved that anthrax disease of cattle was caused by specific bacterium.

1876 -Robert Koch of Germany described the theory called "Koch's postulates." He established the principles of pure culture technique.

1876 -Robert Koch and Pasteur disproved the theory of spontaneous generation of diseases and propose germ theory in relation to the diseases of man and animal.

1882 -American Plant Pathologist -T. J. Burrill first time proved that fire blight of apple and pear was caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia amylovora).

1901-1920 E.F.Smith of U.S.A gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be incitants of plant diseases. He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease. He is also called as "Father of Phytobacteriology". Chilton and his coworkers demonstrated that crown gall bacterium transforms plant cell to tumour cell by introducing into them a plasmid.

1910 -C. O. Jensen related crown gall of plants to cancer of animals.

1952 -J. Lederberg coined the term plasmid 1952 - S. A. Waksman won Nobel prize for the discovery of streptomycin.

1952 - Zinder and J. Lederberg discovered transduction in bacteria 1962 - H. Stolp discovered bdellovibrios.

1972 - P. B. New and A. Kerr success in biological control of A. radiobacter strain K.

1972 - I. M. Windsor and L. M. Black observed a new kind of phloem inhabiting bacterium causing clover club leaf disease.

1974 - I. Zanen et al. demonstrated Ti plasmid in Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

1980 - D. W. Dye et al. introduced the pathovar in the taxonomy of plant pathogenic bacteria.

Plant Virology

1886 -Adolf Mayer described a disease of tobacco called mosaikkranheit (tobacco mosaic). Adolf Mayer demonstrated the sap transmission of Tobacco Mosaic Virus disease.

1892 -Dimitri Ivanowski demonstrated that the causal agent of tobacco mosaic could pass through bacterial filter.

1895 -E.F. Smith of U.S.A. showed the peach yellows was a contagious disease.

1898 -M.W. Beijerinck -a Dutch microbiologist and founder of virology proved that the virus inciting tobacco mosaic is not a microorganism. He believed it to be contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid). He was the first to use the term virus, which is the Latin word for poison.

1929 -F. O. Holmes provided a tool by which the virus could be measured by showing that the amount of virus present in a plant sample preparation is proportional to the number of local lesions produced on appropriate host plant leaves rubbed with the contaminated sap.

1935 -W. M. Stanley proved that viruses can be made as crystals. He got Nobel Prize in 1946.

1936 -F. C. Bawden and, N.W. Pirie (Britain) found that the crystalline nature of the virus contains nucleic acid and protein.

1939 -Kausche and colleagues first time saw the TMV virus particles with the help of Electron microscope.

1956 -Gierer and Schramm proved that the nucleic acid fraction of the virus is actually the infectious agent.

1959 -Munday succeeded in inducing TMV mutations.

1966 -Kassanis discovered the satellite viruses.

1971 -T. O. Diener discovered viroids, which only consist of nucleic acids. Smaller than viruses, caused potato spindle tuber disease (250-400 bases long of single-stranded circular molecule of infectious RNA).

Phytoplasma

1967 - Doi et al and Ishiie et al, the Japanese scientists found that mycoplasmalike organisms (MLO) could be responsible for the disease of the yellows type. Doi observed that MLO's are constantly present in phloem while Ishiie observed MLO's temporarily disappeared when the plants are treated with tetracycline antibodies.

Spiroplasma

1972-Davies et al., observed that a motile, helical wall-less microorganism associated with corn stunt diseases, which could be cultured and characterized and they named it as spiroplasma.

[EBOOK] Plant Pathogens and Principles of Plant Pathology-ICAR e-Course For B.Sc (Agriculture) and B.Tech (Agriculture)

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[EBOOK] IAS RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS, DR. BUI CHI BUU ET AL., IAS (Institute of Agricultural Science for Southern Vietnam)

The Institute of Agricultural Sciences for Southern Vietnam (IAS) is an institution that performs experimental research projects for development of agricultural scientific technology, propagation of newly developed scientific technology, varieties, farming technology education for Southern Vietnam. In 2007, there were a lot of chance and threat, a turning point for much of the country, when Vietnam became a 150th WTO member. Although several casual disasters as flooding and typhoons, brown plant hopper outbreak with virus disease transmission, bird flu, serious porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus disease (PRRSV), volatile world prices on fuel and fertilizer; agricultural production In the country was remarkably higher than the previous year. It not only ensured food security but was also among the 10 key exports to earn revenue of more than $1 billion.

Total value of agriculture obtained VND 231,282 billion accounting for 20.23% of GDP; production value enhanced 4.6%; total value Increased 3.4%.

Grain food production offered 39.98 million tons, including rice and maize of 35.87 million tons, and 4.1 million tons, respectively. Rice growing areas developed 7.2 million ha, reducing 1 25,000 ha; with Its average yield of 4.98 t/ha. Maize growing areas developed 1.068 million ha (augmented 4%); with average yield of 3.85 t/ha (increasing 4.1%)

Groundnut production obtained 505,000 t, sugar cane: 17.4 million tons, soybean: 275,500 t. Black pepper obtained 90,300 t, cashew nut: 301,900 t, rubber latex: 601,700 t. Fruit tree areas developed 775,500 ha - Increasing 4,100 ha.

Husbandry production accounted for 24% of total agricultural value. Cow composed of 6.73 million heads (increasing 3%), buffalo: 3 million heads (Increasing 2.6%); poultry 226 million birds (Increasing 5.3%); pig: 22.6 million heads (reducing 1.1%). Meat production gained 3.83 million tons (Increasing 12.56%).

Aqua-production augmented 11% as compared to the last year with total production of 4 15 million tons (increasing 11.5%).

Wood production value increased 1% as compared to 2006. Total forest area is currently 12.85 million ha with forest cover percentage of 38.8%.

Total export value In agriculture eorned SI 2.5 billion (increasing 18%) including agricultural products of $8.7 billion, and aqua-products of $3.8 billion. Rice export has earned $1.46 billion, with 4.5 million tons - increasing 1 3 9% of value, reducing 3.1 % of quantity as compared to 2006. Fruit-vegetable export gained $299 million.

Farmer Income in 2006 offered VND 26.1 million / household; today gained VND 29-30 million / household in 2007.

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) has overhauled its policies to boost agricultural productivity, quality and production, and then transform rural Vietnam through a new economic system. This means quicken the transformation of agricultural production by increasing the ratio of industry and services.

For Southern parts of Vietnam (Mekong Delta and South-East regions), agricultural value increased 3.04% including 2.25% for crop production, 6.23% for husbandry, 2.67% for service, 0.8% for forestry. Rice production in Dong Xuan, He Thu, Thu Dong and Monsoon seasons has obtained 9.62million tons, 7.76 million tons, 1.07 million tons, and 2.13 million tons, respectively. The total rice production in 2007 gained 20.6 million tons (augmenting 701,088 t), with growing areas of 4.13 million ha (reducing 77,754 ha), and average yield 4.98 t / ha (increasing 0.26 t /ha). Maize production gained 1.95 million tons (Increased 225,000 T) with growing areas of 741,700 ha. Cassava production areas covered 293,000 ha (increased 8,000 ha). Annual industrial crops covered 431,000 ha (reduced 20,000 ha) except groundnut Increased 1,000 ha, and 2,000 ha for sugarcane. Soybean obtained 1 54,800 T (increased 28.8%); groundnut obtained 368,000 T (3.7%). Looking to perennial industrial crops, coffee areas in commercial production covered 490,000 ha. Its production gained one million tons (increased 100,000 T as compared to the same time of 2006). Its export value was $1.21 billion (63.9% increased) with 832,000 T. Rubber areas covered 516,000 ho ( + 5%). Its latex production obtained 550,000T ( + 8%). Its export value was $547.3 million ( + 5.8%) with 291,000 T. Tea areas covered 120,000 ha. Its production gained 540,000 T (+ 6,000T). Its export value was $ 44 million (+ 0.9%) with 47,000 T (+ 7.4%). Cashew nut areas covered 340,000 ha. Its production gained 260,000 T. Its export value was $ 258 million (+ 1 7.8%). Fruit tree areas covered 780,000 ha. Estimated total production would be 7 million tons In this year. Pig population reduced 384,000 heads due to animal foot and mouth disease and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome. Cattle increased 4-5% except buffalo reduced 1 -2%. Poultry increased 3-4%.

We have learned In 2007 that looking into the future is risky. Furthermore, In the era of limitless competition with the collapse of trading barrier between countries, IAS must be endeavoring to fully perform its role of progressing among agricultural industrialization, farmer intellectualization and rural civilization as "Three Nongs" vision by MARD (three Nongs including: agriculture, farmer, and rural development).

Seventeen new technologies by IAS have been approved and released in 2007.

We are concentrating on improvement of productivity of agricultural industry and development of environmental-friendly agricultural technology to enable harmonious co-existence of human being and natural ecosystem.

We are endeavoring to establish livestock farming that is well harmonized with environment under tropical conditions, to raise the safety level through stabilized stock and elevation of product quality, to prevent livestock disease in advance through system of continuous quarantine.

We are propagating highly pure and superior seeds such as disease-free tomato seedlings, rice, black pepper, maize, soybean, mungbean, peanut, cassava.

Coping with climate change, IAS deals with studying the effect of climate on crops and animals in Southern parts, especially rice production, with the emphasis on examining increased C02 and temperature impacts. The direct and Indirect consequences for agricultural production have to be assessed to develop strategies and technologies to adapt major crops and animals to changing climate. We need to explore cropmanagement practices that reduce greenhouse gas emission under intensive production, and to prevent from soil degradation and desertification in South-East regions and Central Coastal areas. Others deal with modeling climate change impacts on agricultural production through international cooperation projects, which will be well considered. Because climate change has recently received enormous attention in the media and in policy statements.

MARD actually sees plant breeding and animal breeding at the heart of improvement in agricultural production in Vietnam, the efficiency of adaptive measures can be greatly increased by other efforts, Including molecular marker techniques to speed up the breeding process, geographic analysis of vulnerable regions, site-specific adjustment in crop management as planting dates, water saving. Research Into disease and pest management is crucial for reducing poverty and providing food security in developing countries such as Vietnam. An Important subset of the research is concerned with containment of pests and diseases - otherwise known as bio-securlty.

IAS determines Its function under new situations as a multidisciplinary and specific research institution so that how to integrate between crop science and animal one Into special working groups. Teamwork models are recommended to crucially enhance the IAS's research activities, which meet the demand of agricultural production in South.

The IAS operates as part of MARD's national and International development cooperation programs, with a mission to achieve more productive and sustainable agricultural systems, for benefit of Vietnam. Any your kind cooperation would be appreciated.

Bui Chi Buu

Director General

[EBOOK] IAS RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS, DR. BUI CHI BUU ET AL., IAS (Institute of Agricultural Science for Southern Vietnam)

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